| Part of a series on |
| Jehovah's Witnesses |
|---|
| Overview |
| Organizational structure |
| Governing Body Corporations |
| History |
| Bible Student movement Leadership dispute Splinter groups Doctrinal development |
| Demographics |
| By country |
| Beliefs · Practices |
| Salvation · Eschatology · 144,000 Faithful and discreet slave · Hymns God's name · Blood · Discipline |
| Literature |
| The Watchtower · Awake! New World Translation List of publications |
| Teaching programs |
| Kingdom Hall · Gilead School |
| People |
| Watch Tower presidents |
| W.H. Conley · C.T. Russell J.F. Rutherford · N.H. Knorr F.W. Franz · M.G. Henschel D.A. Adams |
| Formative influences |
| William Miller · Henry Grew George Storrs · N.H. Barbour |
| Notable former members |
| Raymond Franz · Olin Moyle |
| Opposition |
| Criticism · Persecution Supreme Court cases |
The practices of Jehovah's Witnesses are based on the Bible teachings of Charles Taze Russell, founder of the Bible Student movement, and successive presidents of the Watch Tower Society, Joseph Franklin Rutherford and Nathan Homer Knorr. Since 1976 they have also been based on decisions made at closed meetings of the religion's Governing Body.[1][2] Instructions regarding activities and acceptable behavior are disseminated through The Watchtower magazine and other official publications, and at conventions and congregation meetings.
Jehovah's Witnesses endeavor to remain separate from secular society, which is regarded as a place of moral contamination and under the control of Satan, refusing any political and military activity and limiting social contact with non-Witnesses.[3] Members practice a strict moral code, which forbids premarital sex, adultery, homosexuality, smoking, alcohol and drug abuse, and blood transfusions.[4] Discipline within congregations is maintained by a system of judicial committees, which have the power to expel members who breach organizational rules and demand their shunning by other Witnesses.[5] The threat of shunning also serves to deter other members from dissident behavior.[6][7]
Watch Tower Society publications teach that only Jehovah's Witnesses represent true Christianity and for that reason they refuse all ecumenical relations with other religious denominations.[8] Members are expected to attend all congregation meetings, and regular large-scale conventions, which are highly structured and based on material from Watch Tower Society publications.[9]
Contents |
Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, and are open to the public. Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in which "territory" they reside and are expected to attend weekly meetings as scheduled by the Watch Tower Society and congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of the Bible and Witness doctrines; traditions of mysticism, glossalalia, creed recitation or periods of silent meditation common in other Christian denominations are absent.[10] During meetings and in other formal circumstances, Witnesses refer to one another as "Brother" and "Sister".[11] Sociologist Andrew Holden claims meetings create an atmosphere of uniformity for Witnesses, intensify their sense of belonging to a religious community, and reinforce the plausibility of the organization's belief system.[10] He says they are also important in helping new converts adopt a different way of life.[10] According to The Watchtower, one role of the frequency and length of meetings is to protect Witnesses from becoming "involved in the affairs of the world."[12][13]
The form and content of the meetings is established by the religion's Brooklyn headquarters, generally involving a consideration of the same subject matter worldwide each week.[10] Two meetings each week are divided into five distinct sections, lasting a total of about four hours. Meetings are opened and closed with hymns and brief prayers delivered from the platform. Witnesses are urged to prepare for all meetings by studying Watch Tower literature from which the content is drawn.[14] Kingdom Halls are typically functional in character, and contain no religious symbols.[10] Each year, Witnesses from several congregations, which form a "circuit", gather for one-day and two-day assemblies; several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the celebration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death".
The weekend meeting, usually held on Sunday, comprises a 30-minute public talk by a congregation elder or ministerial servant and a one-hour question-and-answer study of a Bible-based article from The Watchtower magazine,[10] with questions prepared by the Watch Tower Society and the answers provided in the magazine.[15] Members may use their own words to express the ideas in the printed material,[16] though personal ideas derived from independent study are discouraged.[10][17]
The midweek meeting, typically held in the evening, includes a question-and-answer "Congregation Bible Study" (25 minutes) based on a Watch Tower Society publication,;[10][18] the "Theocratic Ministry School" (30 minutes), designed to train Witnesses in public speaking and proselytizing using talks and rehearsals of doorstop sermons;[19] and the "Service Meeting" (35 minutes), following an agenda set in the Society's monthly newsletter Our Kingdom Ministry to train Witnesses to participate in the public ministry.[20][21] Before 2009, the midweek meeting consisted of the Theocratic Ministry School and the Service Meeting (each 45 minutes);[22] the Congregation Book Study (1 hour) was typically held on a separate evening, divided into smaller groups meeting in private homes.[23]
Jehovah's Witnesses commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or "propitiatory sacrifice" by observing the Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial. They celebrate it once per year, noting that it was instituted on the Passover, an annual festival.[24] They observe it on Nisan 14 according to the ancient Jewish luni-solar calendar.[25] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that this is the only celebration the Bible commands Christians to observe.[26]
Of those who attend the Memorial, a small minority worldwide partake of the unleavened bread and wine. This is because Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the majority of the faithful have an earthly hope. Only those who believe they have a heavenly hope, the "remnant" (those still living) of the 144,000 "anointed", partake of the bread and wine.[27] In 2011, the number of persons who partook worldwide was 11,824, whereas the number who attended was 19,374,737.[28]
The Memorial, held after sunset, includes a talk on the meaning of the celebration and the circulation among the audience of unadulterated red wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread symbolizes Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine symbolizes his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation.[29][30] Because many congregations have no members who claim to be anointed, it is common for no one to partake of the bread and wine.
Each year, Jehovah's Witnesses hold a "Special Assembly Day" and a two-day "Circuit Assembly", held in each circuit worldwide. Each circuit comprises several congregations in a geographical area. These are held either in Assembly Halls owned by Jehovah's Witnesses, or in rented facilities, such as public auditoriums. Once a year, Jehovah's Witnesses gather at larger assemblies called "District Conventions" which are usually three days long (Friday to Sunday). These conventions consist primarily of Bible-based sermons, including demonstrations and experiences of their preaching work. They also often feature live, full-costume dramatic plays re-enacting biblical accounts, such as Moses and the Plagues of Egypt, and Lot in Sodom and Gomorrah. Every few years, "International Conventions" are held in selected cities, usually lasting four days (Thursday to Sunday), with visiting delegates from other countries. The attendance of some conventions numbers into the hundreds of thousands, with the largest-ever gathering held in New York in 1958 at Yankee Stadium and Polo Grounds with a peak attendance exceeding 250,000.
Jehovah's Witnesses are required to express their belief in the religion's doctrines by participating in both organized and spontaneous evangelizing and proselytizing work,[31] with baptism permitted only for those who demonstrate "regular and zealous" participation.[32] Baptism is regarded as an automatic ordination as a minister[33] and from that time Witnesses feel a moral obligation to serve as "publishers", disseminating Watch Tower doctrines as evangelists of "the Truth".[31] Watch Tower publications describe house-to-house visitations as the primary work of Jehovah's Witnesses[32] in obedience to a "divine command" to preach "the Kingdom good news in all the earth and (make) disciples of people of all the nations".[34] Children usually accompany their parents and participate in the public ministry.[35]
Members who commit themselves to evangelize for 840 hours per year (an average of 70 hours per month) are called regular pioneers.[36] Those who commit themselves to evangelize for 50 hours for one month are called auxiliary pioneers, which they may do for consecutive months.[37] Some Witnesses volunteer for missionary service, and may be invited to receive specialized training at the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead. These individuals dedicate, on average, more than 120 hours per month to their work.[38] Members who are not able to 'pioneer' are told they may maintain the "pioneer spirit", by spending as much time as they can in preaching and by supporting the efforts of pioneers.[39] Witnesses are frequently instructed through Watch Tower Society publications, and at meetings and conventions, to increase the quality and quantity of their preaching efforts.[40][41] Watch Tower Society publications suggest that endurance in public preaching is the means by which Witnesses attain salvation,[42][43] and that evangelizing frees them from blood-guilt regarding individuals who might die at Armageddon without having heard about God's kingdom.[44]
Specialized "territory" maps of residential and commercial areas are prepared within the boundaries of each congregation's territory and distributed to publishers who are responsible for preaching within that area. Witnesses are instructed to fill out monthly report slips on their preaching activity,[45] listing the hours spent, publications placed with householders, and the number of "return visits" made to households where interest had been shown formerly.[31] The reports are used to help measure the "spirituality" of individuals[31][46] and to establish the eligibility of men as congregation elders and ministerial servants.[47] A Witness who fails to report for a month is termed an "irregular publisher"; one who has not turned in a field service report for six months consecutively is termed an "inactive publisher".
Witnesses have, in the past, used a wide variety of methods to spread their faith, including information marches, where members wore sandwich boards and handed out leaflets, to sound cars (car-mounted phonographs), and syndicated newspaper columns and radio segments devoted to sermons. Between 1924 and 1957, the organization operated a radio station, WBBR, from New York.
Jehovah's Witnesses make extensive use of Watch Tower Society literature, including books, magazines, booklets and handbills, to spread their beliefs and to use as textbooks at their religious meetings. The publications are produced in many languages, with a small selection available in 500 languages. Their primary journals, The Watchtower and Awake!, are published simultaneously in hundreds of languages[48] and are available in audio and electronic formats. Issues of both publications are compiled annually into bound volumes, and are added yearly to the Watchtower Library CD-ROM, which contains many Witness publications from 1950 onward, and is officially available to baptized members only.[49] New books, brochures, and other items are released at their annual conventions. Additionally, a number of audio cassettes, videocassettes, and DVDs have been produced explaining the group's beliefs, practices, organization and history. Some of these also provide dramas based on biblical accounts. Since 1942 all Watch Tower literature has been published anonymously.[50]
Publications were sold to the public until the early 1990s, from which time they were offered gratis, with a request for donations. The change in policy was first announced in the United States in February 1990, following the loss of a US Supreme Court court case by Jimmy Swaggart Ministries on the issue of sales tax exemption for religious groups.[51] The Watch Tower Society had joined the case as an Amicus curiae, or "friend of the court".[52] The court ruling would have resulted in the Watch Tower Society having to pay millions of dollars in sales tax if sales of their literature had continued.[53]
Witnesses are urged to prepare for congregation meetings by studying the assigned Watch Tower literature,[54] and are expected to read all magazines and books published by the Society.[55][56][57] One analysis noted that each year Witnesses are expected to read more than 3,000 pages of the Society's publications, according to its suggested program for personal study. In 1981 this would have included 1,536 pages from The Watchtower and Awake!, 48 pages from Our Kingdom Ministry, 384 pages of a book for the congregation book study, 384 pages from the Yearbook, 360 pages of the Theocratic Ministry School textbook and 258 pages of assembly releases in addition to scheduled weekly Bible reading.[58] Much of the literature is illustrated extensively, with sociologist Andrew Holden observing utopian, post-Armageddon images of happy Witnesses in bright sunshine and pristine environments, often playing with formerly wild animals such as lions and tigers, in contrast to dark-colored images of unfavorable activities such as murders, burglaries and promiscuity that highlight the moral dangers outside the organization.[59]
To become one of Jehovah's Witnesses, one must first follow a systematic Bible study course. In time, one must participate regularly in the preaching work, and attend meetings.[60] One must also accept Jesus' ransom sacrifice and repent of sins, and make a personal dedication to God.[61]
The elders ask a series of questions to ensure that the person understands and accepts the beliefs of the Witnesses[62] in preparation for baptism.[63] Baptisms are normally performed at assemblies and conventions. At these baptisms, candidates make "public declaration" of their prior dedication to God.[64] The speaker asks the candidates, "On the basis of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ, have you repented of your sins and dedicated yourself to Jehovah to do his will?” After the candidates answer with an affirmative "yes" and agree that their dedication and baptism "identifies [them as members] of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God’s spirit-directed organization", they undergo water immersion.[65]
Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. In the event that an accusation of serious sin is made concerning a baptized member, if there is sufficient evidence, a tribunal or judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, administer help and possibly apply sanctions.
Disfellowshipping is the most severe form of discipline administered. Before taking this step, the judicial committee must determine that the individual has committed a "serious sin" and that there is no evidence of true repentance.[66] To judge that repentance is genuine, members of the judicial committee ask questions and review the actions of the accused member.[67] Baptized members who spread teachings contrary to the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses can be disfellowshipped for apostasy.[68][69][70] Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal, after which, if the person has not appealed, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation; disfellowshipping does not take effect until the announcement is made to the congregation.[71] After a person is disfellowshipped, the person is shunned by all baptized members.[72] Exceptions to this would include cases where a member was forced to have commercial dealings with a member who is disfellowshipped, or if the disfellowshipped member is living with family members who are baptized. In these cases, the Witness are not permitted to speak about matters pertaining to the religion, except in the case of parents conducting a bible study with a disfellowshipped minor.[73] The extent to which disfellowshipped or disassociated relatives living in the same household are included in family life is left to the discretion of the family.[74] Family members living outside the home who are disfellowshipped have minimal contact.[75][76]
Reproof involves sins that could lead to disfellowshipping. Ones considered "truly repentant" are reproved rather than disfellowshipped.[77] Reproof is given "before all onlookers". If the sin is private in nature, the reproof would involve just the individual(s) involved. If the sin is known generally by the entire congregation or the community, an announcement is made informing the congregation that the person has been reproved. Later, without disclosing names or private details, one of the elders gives a separate talk ensuring that the congregation understands the sin, its dangers, and how to avoid it.[78] Reproved individuals have some congregation privileges restricted, until the elders decide that the member has regained "spiritual strength."[79][80][81] Restrictions may include not sharing in meeting parts, not commenting at meeting parts, and not praying for a group. The duration of restrictions depends on the elders. One cannot "pioneer" or "auxiliary pioneer" for at least one year after reproof is given.[82]
Marking is practiced if a person's course of action is regarded as a violation of Bible principles, reflecting badly on the congregation, but is not a disfellowshipping offense.[83] The person is strongly counseled. If, after repeated counsel sessions, the person still pursues the disturbing course, he might be 'marked', which involves an announcement stating that the actions in question are wrong, without naming the individual involved. Congregation members limit social contact with that person. The purpose of this is to shame the person into correcting their actions.[84] "Marked" individuals are not shunned completely, but social contact is minimized.[85]
The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority of family decisions, as the head of his family. Marriages must be monogamous. Wives should be submissive to their husbands and husbands are to have deep respect and love for their wives.[86] Husbands are instructed to treat their wives as Jesus treated his followers. He should not hurt or mistreat his family in any way. The father should be hard-working in providing necessities to his family. He must also provide for them in a spiritual capacity. This includes religious instruction for the family, and taking the lead in preaching activities. Parental discipline for children should not be in a harsh, cruel way. Children are instructed to obey their parents.
Married couples are encouraged to speak with local elders if they are having problems. Married couples can separate in the case of physical abuse and neglect, or if one partner attempts to hinder the other from being a Jehovah's Witness.[87] Re-marriage after divorce is permissible only on the grounds of adultery, based on their understanding of Jesus' words at Matthew 5:32 and Matthew 19:9.
Jehovah's Witnesses demand high standards of morality within their ranks.[88] Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Abortion is considered murder.[89] Homosexuality, premarital sex, and extramarital sex are considered “serious sins”.[90] Smoking, use of addictive drugs, and drunkenness are prohibited, though alcohol is permitted in moderation.[91][92] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently stressed. Entertainment promoting immoral, "demonic", or violent themes is considered inappropriate. Members are warned that personal grooming such as beards, long hair or earrings for men, or other styles of dress or grooming might "stumble" the consciences of others.[93]
Gambling by making money through the losses of others is viewed as a "form of greed", and is prohibited.[94][95][96] The trading of stocks, shares and bonds is viewed as acceptable.[97]
Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that the Bible prohibits the consumption, storage and transfusion of blood, based on their understanding of scriptures such as Leviticus 17:10, 11: "I will even set my face against that soul that eateth blood," and Acts 15:29: "abstain from ... blood." This standpoint is applied even in emergencies. The Watchtower introduced this view in 1945, and it has developed since then.[98] Accordingly, the organization has established Hospital Information Services (HIS), which provides education and facilitation of bloodless surgery. This service also maintains Hospital Liaison Committees, which support adherents facing surgery and provide information to the medical community on bloodless surgery techniques and alternatives to blood.[99]
Though accepted by most members, some within the Jehovah's Witness community do not endorse the doctrine.[100] The doctrine has drawn criticism from members of the medical community.
Watch Tower Society publications teach that Witnesses are engaged in a "spiritual, theocratic warfare" against false teachings and wicked spirit forces they say try to impede them in their preaching work.[101] Based on their interpretation of Ephesians 6:10-20, they believe their "spiritual war" is fought with truth, righteousness, the "good news of peace", faith, the hope of salvation, God's word and prayer.[102][103] They have advocated the use of "theocratic war strategy" to protect the interests of God's cause, which would include hiding the truth from God's "enemies"[104][105] by being evasive or withholding truthful or incriminating information from those not entitled by law to know.[106][107][108] The Watchtower told Witnesses: "It is proper to cover over our arrangements for the work that God commands us to do. If the wolfish foes draw wrong conclusions from our maneuvers to outwit them, no harm has been done to them by the harmless sheep, innocent in their motives as doves."[109]
Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world" in harmony with Jesus' description of his followers at John 17:14-16. Watch Tower publications define the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah’s approved servants" and teach that it is ruled by Satan[110] and a place of danger[111] and moral contamination.[112] Witnesses manifest their world-renouncing beliefs in many ways. They avoid involvement in social controversies,[113] remain politically neutral, and do not seek public office. The Watch Tower Society has stated that voting in political elections is a personal conscience decision,[114] though a Witness who takes any action considered to be a "violation of Christian neutrality" may face religious sanctions.[115] They refuse participation in ecumenical and interfaith activities,[116][117] abstain from celebrating religious holidays, and reject many customs they claim have pagan origins. They do not work in industries associated with the military, nor serve in the armed services,[118] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.[119] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to national flags or sing national anthems or other patriotic songs.[120]
Witnesses are urged to minimize their social contact with non-members[121][122][123] because of perceived dangers of worldly association.[124][125] Sociologist Andrew Holden indicated they are highly selective in choosing with whom they spend leisure time, generally choosing the company of other Witnesses. Many Witnesses interviewed by Holden reported tensions and ostracism at work because of their religious beliefs.[126] He reported that many converts to the religion required some social adjustment as they gradually reduced contact with non-Witness friends.[127] Association with those outside the organization, commonly termed by Witnesses as "worldly" and "not in the Truth", is acceptable only when it is viewed as an opportunity to preach[121][128] and Witnesses are under considerable pressure from the Society to show outsiders they are people of high moral fiber. Holden claims that as a result, Witnesses working with "worldly" colleagues tend to closely adhere to Watch Tower teachings.[129]
Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested that it is the religion's intellectual and organizational isolation—coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution—that has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.[130]
Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed, though they avoid incorporating certain traditions they see to have pagan origins.[131][132] They may use rings in wedding ceremonies; The Watchtower has stated that although wedding rings may first have been used by pagans, their origin does not rule out their use for Christians.[133] Witnesses typically observe wedding anniversaries, with the Watch Tower Society noting that wedding anniversaries apparently do not stem from pagan origins.[134]
Other common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as birthdays, Halloween, and Christmas[135] are not celebrated because they believe that these continue to involve "false religious beliefs or activities."[136][137][138] Watch Tower Society publications rule out the celebration of Mother's Day because of a claimed link with pagan gods[139] and concerns that giving "special honor and worship" to mothers is a form of "creature worship" that could turn people away from God.[140] The Society also directs Witnesses to shun May Day, New Year's Day and Valentine's Day celebrations because of their pagan origins.[141]
Their opposition to birthdays is said to be based on how the Bible presents them. Watch Tower Society publications note that the only birthday celebrations explicitly mentioned in the Bible are those of an unnamed Pharaoh and Herod Antipas, and that both were associated with executions, and neither celebrant was a servant of God.[142] Though some religions interpret Job 1:4 to indicate birthday feasts of Job's sons, Jehovah's Witnesses interpret them as a circuit of feasts from one house to the next.[143] The Bible does not show Jesus or his apostles celebrating birthdays and The Watchtower claims the absence of any record of the date of the birth of Jesus or his apostles indicates that "God does not want us to celebrate any of these birthdays".[144]
International and regional building teams frequently undertake constructions of Kingdom Halls over the course of one or two weekends, termed "quick-builds". Larger construction projects, including building regional Assembly Halls and Bethel offices, factories, residences, warehouses, and farm facilities, are also performed almost entirely by volunteer members.
Jehovah's Witnesses provide relief assistance in disaster-stricken areas for their members and others in the vicinity. Medicine and clothing were provided to both Hutu and Tutsi Witnesses during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide.[145] Following Hurricane Katrina, they helped rebuild houses of Witnesses and others.[146] The Governing Body of Jehovah’s Witnesses uses "Regional Building Committees" to oversee relief efforts worldwide.[147]
Jehovah's Witnesses fund their activities, such as publishing, constructing and operating facilities, evangelism, and disaster relief via donations. There is no tithing or collection, but members are reminded to donate to the organization; Witnesses typically provide an opportunity for members of the public to make donations as they encounter them in their preaching work. Donation boxes labeled for several purposes are located in Kingdom Halls and other meeting facilities. Generally there are contribution boxes for local operating expenses, a Kingdom Hall fund for helping Witnesses around the world to build Kingdom Halls, and a general fund for the "Worldwide Work", which includes the printing of literature, organization of conventions, supporting missionaries and disaster relief, and other operating expenses of the organization.[148][149][150]
The accounts (including donations) and the financial operation of the local congregation are reviewed monthly at the Service Meeting. Donations are also accepted via mail, and the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society can be named as a beneficiary to an estate, and also accepts donations in the form of life insurance policies, pension plans, bank accounts, certificates of deposit, retirement accounts, stocks and bonds, real estate, annuities and trusts.[151]